[116] Advancing on Capua, he met the two consuls of that year Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus and Gaius Norbanus who had dangerously divided their forces. [74], During the violence, Sulla was forced to shelter in Marius' nearby house (later denied in his memoirs). Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[8] (/sl/; 13878 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He then fought successfully against Germanic tribes during the Cimbrian War, and Italian allies during the Social War. Pompey, the son of Pompey Strabo, raised a legion from his clients in Picenum and also joined Sulla; Sulla treated him with great respect and addressed him as imperator before dispatching him to raise more troops. As a result, "husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers. [50][51], In 94BC, Sulla repulsed the forces of Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. He was then assigned by lot to serve under the consul Gaius Marius. Primary sources are contrasted with secondary sources, works that provide analysis, commentary, or criticism on the primary source. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (/ s l /; 138-78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman.He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force.. Sulla had the distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as reviving the dictatorship.A gifted and innovative general, he achieved . The Steamboat Adventure. This unusual appointment (used hitherto only in times of extreme danger to the city, such as during the Second Punic War, and then only for 6-month periods) represented an exception to Rome's policy of not giving total power to a single individual. Research Process and Acumen: Experience with primary sources can support future academic success. [19] Plutarch mentions that during his last marriage to Valeria, he still kept company with "actresses, musicians, and dancers, drinking with them on couches night and day.[20]. The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. Student Engagement: Primary source materials "help spark students . [65] This had been preceded by the lex Julia, passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. Of those who contracted the bubonic plague, 4 out of 5 died within eight days. National Library Services to Schools has developed a suite of primary source analysis tools specifically for Aotearoa New Zealand schools. His execution in AD 62 on the orders of emperor Nero made him the last of the Cornelii Sullae. With Mithridates' armies in Europe almost entirely destroyed, Archelaus and Sulla negotiated a set of relatively cordial peace terms which were then forwarded to Mithridates. Tweet. Normally, candidates had to have first served for ten years in the military, but by Sulla's time, this had been superseded by an age requirement. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force. The collection currently contains . Mithridates was to give Asia and Paphlagonia back to Rome. However, this material may be located in a number of places including in the library, elsewhere on campus, or even online. Sulla 5 (L. Cornelius Sulla Felix) - Roman dictator, 82-79 B.C. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was born in 138 BCE in Puteoli, Italy. [47], Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to the banks of the Euphrates, where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire. [131] The purge went on for several months. [109] When Flaccus' consular army marched through Macedonia towards Thrace, his command was usurped by his legate Gaius Flavius Fimbria, who had Flaccus killed before chasing Mithridates with his army into Asia itself. "[148][149] Sulla's example proved that it could be done, therefore inspiring others to attempt it; in this respect, he has been seen as another step in the Republic's fall. Sulla raised important cavalry forces for Marius and was responsible for the . [100] In need of resources, Sulla sacked the temples of Epidaurus, Delphi, and Olympia; after a battle with the Pontic general Archelaus outside Piraeus, Sulla's forces forced the Pontic garrison to withdraw by sea. Historical documents : how to read them. was a major figure in the late Roman Republic. [53], Relations between Rome and its allies (the socii), had deteriorated over the years up to 91BC. After one of the other legates was killed by his men, Sulla refused to discipline them except by issuing a proclamation imploring them to show more courage against the enemy. senators and equites) executed, although as many as 9,000 people were estimated to have been killed. With the capture and execution of Carbo, who had fled Sicily for Egypt, both consuls for 82BC were now dead. [48] The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation; the Parthians, however, ratified the treaty reached, which established the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. At the same time, Marius had annihilated the Cimbri's allies, the Teutones, at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae. This brief guide is designed to help students and researchers find and evaluate primary sources available online. Plutarch of Chaeronea in Boeotia (ca. Shortly before Sulla's first consulship, the Romans fought the bloody Social War against their . Some of these historians lived at the time of the events, and therefore, may actually be primary sources, but others, especially Plutarch (CE 45-125), who covers men from multiple eras, lived later than the events they describe. He was also notorious for his personal relationships . Marius, in the midst of this military crisis, sought and won repeated consulships, which upset aristocrats in the Senate; they, however, likely acknowledged the indispensability of Marius' military capabilities in defeating the Germanic invaders. Athens itself was spared total destruction "in recognition of [its] glorious past" but the city was sacked. 134/3 eagle's brood foretells the number of Marius' consulships. Identifying and locating primary sources can be challenging. [106] Roman forces then surrounded the Pontic camp. He married again, with a woman called Aelia, of which nothing is known other than her name. A gifted and innovative general, he achieved numerous successes in wars against foreign and domestic opponents. Secondary sources are interpretations of history. [81.4] It note also contains an account of Thracian . [95], Mithridates' successes against the Romans incited a revolt by the Athenians against Roman rule. 45-120 CE) was a Platonist philosopher, best known to the general public as author of his "Parallel Lives" of paired Greek and Roman statesmen and military leaders.He was a voluminous writer, author also of a collection of "Moralia" or "Ethical Essays," mostly in dialogue format, many of them devoted to philosophical topics, not at all . Jugurtha had fled to his father-in-law, King Bocchus I of Mauretania (a nearby kingdom); Marius invaded Mauretania, and after a pitched battle in which both Sulla and Marius played important roles in securing victory, Bocchus felt forced by Roman arms to betray Jugurtha. He was a leader of the optimates, which sought to maintain senatorial supremacy against the populist reforms advocated by the populares, headed by Marius. Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office, so ambitious individuals would no longer seek election to the tribunate, since such an election would end their political career. [119][120] The remainder of 83BC was dedicated to recruiting for the next year's campaign amid poor weather: Quintus Sertorius had raised a considerable force in Etruria, but was alienated from the consuls by the election of Gaius Marius' son rather than himself and so left to his praetorian province of Hispania Citerior; Sulla repudiated recognition of any treaties with the Samnites, whom he did not consider to be Roman citizens due to his rejection of Marius and Cinna's deal in 87BC. [114], The general feeling in Italy, however, was decidedly anti-Sullan; many people feared Sulla's wrath and still held memories of his extremely unpopular occupation of Rome during his consulship. Thus, Sulla was presented with a choice. [104], After the Battle of Chaeronea, Sulla learnt that Cinna's government had sent Lucius Valerius Flaccus to take over his command. Rome at the End of the Punic Wars [History, Book 6] [At this Site] Acts of the Divine Augustus (Res Gestae Divi Augusti) [At MIT] The Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (40-93 CE), [At UNRV History] Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola (40-93 CE), c.98 CE trans. [40] His prospects for advancement under Marius stalled, however, Sulla started to complain "most unfairly" that Marius was withholding opportunities from him. 1011 accepts these inheritances without much comment and places them around Sulla's turning thirty years of age. The Acropolis was then besieged. Sulla's military coup was enabled by Marius's military reforms, that bound the army's loyalty with the general rather than to the Roman Republic, and permanently destabilized the Roman power structure. He also divorced his then-wife Cloelia and married Metella, widow of the recently-deceased Marcus Aemilius Scaurus. . [146] An epitaph, which Sulla composed himself, was inscribed onto the tomb, reading, "No friend ever served me, and no enemy ever wronged me, whom I have not repaid in full. [citation needed]. His family was patrician, part of the ruling class in ancient Rome. Further, Sulla failed to frame a settlement whereby the army (following the Marian reforms allowing nonland-owning soldiery) remained loyal to the Senate, rather than to generals such as himself. The first of the leges Corneliae concerned the interest rates, and stipulated that all debtors were to pay simple interest only, rather than the common compound interest that so easily bankrupted the debtors. The next year, 96BC, he assigned "probably pro consule as was customary" to Cilicia in Asia Minor. Sulla, meanwhile, had to allow matters to unfold beyond his control. [91], During close of the Social War, in 89BC, Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invaded Roman Asia. By the end of the war, the SSA had conscripted over 2.8 million American men. He declined battle with Pontus at the hill Philoboetus near Chaeronea before manoeuvring to capture higher ground and build earthworks. The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology. Lucius other name: Sulla Details individual; military/naval; official; Roman; Male. Primary Sources (1) Speech by Gaius Marius in the Senate, quoted by Sallust in his book The Jugurthine War (c. 40 BC) . [81] He sent his army back to Capua[82] and then conducted the elections for that year, which yielded a resounding rejection of him and his allies. Websites. [63] All of these victories would have been won before the consular elections in October 89. He never allowed his debaucheries to interfere with his duties but he devoted all his leisure time to them. Lucius Cornelius Sulla I. Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. Sulla would ratify Mithridates' position in Pontus and have him declared a Roman ally. When it came to hiding his intentions, his mind was incredibly unfathomable, yet with all else he was extremely generous; especially with money. The Internet Modern History Sourcebook is one of series of history primary sourcebooks. [127] In the north at the same time, Norbanus was defeated and fled for Rhodes, where he eventually committed suicide. [60], The next year, 89BC, Sulla served as legate under the consul Lucius Porcius Cato. There, while giving a speech, he had three or four thousand Samnite prisoners butchered, to the shock of the attending senators. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research. Having exhausted available provisions near Athens, doing so was both necessary to ensure the survival of his army and also to relieve a brigade of six thousand men cut off in Thessaly. In art, literature, and cultural studies, primary sources . The Romans neutralised a Pontic charge of scythed chariots before pushing the Pontic phalanx back across the plain. [44], His term as praetor was largely uneventful, excepting a public dispute with Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo (possibly his brother-in-law) and his magnificent holding of the ludi Apollinares. Archives; Correspondence Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senatorial approval before any bill could be submitted to the Plebeian Council (the principal popular assembly), and which had also restored the older, more aristocratic "Servian" organization to the Centuriate Assembly (assembly of soldiers). His son, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, issued denarii bearing the name of the dictator,[151] as did a grandson, Quintus Pompeius Rufus. He used his powers to purge his opponents, and reform Roman constitutional laws, to restore the primacy of the Senate and limit the power of the tribunes of the plebs. Sulla hurried in full force towards Rome and there fought the Battle of the Colline Gate on the afternoon of 1 November 82BC. The first of the, Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback, sfn error: no target: CITEREFBadian2012 (. [138], As promised, when his tasks were complete, Sulla returned his powers and withdrew to his country villa near Puteoli to be with his family. Sulla's arrival in Brundisium induced defections from the Senate in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, who had already fled from the Cinnan regime, raised an army in Spain, and departed for Africa to join with Metellus Pius (who also joined the Sullans), joined Sulla even before his landing in Italy. His third wife was Cloelia, whom Sulla divorced due to sterility. [41] After the failure of negotiations, the Romans and Cimbri engaged in the Battle of the Raudian Field in which the Cimbri were routed and destroyed. The Roman Republic and territories in 100 B.C. Understanding Context: Awareness of the interconnection of events from the past, present and future. The ancient biography of Sulla written by Plutarch is useful. Primary Sources are immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic, from people who had a direct connection with it. [70][71] They were designed to regulate Rome's finances, which were in a very sorry state after all the years of continual warfare. His descendants among the Cornelii Sullae would hold four consulships during the imperial period: Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 5 BC, Faustus Cornelius Sulla in AD 31, Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix in AD 33, and Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix in 52 AD (he was the son of the consul of 31, and the husband of Claudia Antonia, daughter of the emperor Claudius). Cornelius Lucius Sulla; Lucius Cornelius Cinna (elder) Marcus Licinius Crassus; Pompey the Great (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) Julius Caesar; Marcus . He can hardly have been in any doubt. [2023] Welcome to The Internet History Sourcebooks Project, a collection of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented cleanly (without advertising or excessive layout) for educational use. As this caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and then proscribed 220 more, and again on the third day as many. Threatened by the Pontic navy, Sulla sent his quaestor Lucullus to scrounge about for allied naval forces. When Scipio refused, Sulla let him go. Categories . Primary sources are available here primarily for use in high-school and university/college courses. 101 BC: Took part in the defeat of the Cimbri at the, 90-89 BC: Senior officer in the Social War, as, Holds the consulship for the first time, with, 87 BC: Commands Roman armies to fight King, 85 BC: Liberates the provinces of Macedonia, Asia, and Cilicia from Pontic occupation, 83 BC: Returns to Italy and undertakes civil war against the factional Marian government, 83-82 BC: Enters war with the followers of Gaius Marius the Younger and Cinna, 82 BC: Obtains victory at the battle of the Colline Gate, 80 BC: Holds the consulship for the second time. The source types commonly used in academic writing include: Academic journals. He hinted to them that Marius would find other men to fight Mithridates, forcing them to give up opportunities to plunder the East, claims which were "surely false". Encyclopedias. From Book 81 [81.1] [87 BCE] Lucius Sulla besieged Athens, which had been occupied by Archelaus, an officer of Mithridates; [81.2] [86] after much labor he took the city .. note he gave it back the freedom it used to have. You can limit HOLLIS searches to your time period, but sources may be published later, such as a person's diary published posthumously. Modern sources have been somewhat less damning, as the Mithridatic campaigns later showed that no quick victory over Pontus was possible as long as Mithridates survived. The constitutional reforms of Sulla were a series of laws enacted by the Roman dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla between 82 and 80 BC, reforming the Constitution of the Roman Republic in a revolutionary way.. Marius arranged for Sulla to lift the iustitium and allow Sulpicius to bring proposals; Sulla, in a "desperately weak position [received] little in return[,] perhaps no more than a promise that Sulla's life would be safe". Provides tips on how to read and use primary sources in historical research. After another attempt to relieve Praeneste failed, Carbo lost his nerve and attempted to retreat to Africa; his lieutenants attempted again to relieve Praeneste but after that again failed, marched on Rome to force Sulla from his well-defended positions. National Archives Catalog Find online primary source materials for classroom & student projects from the National Archive's online catalog (OPA). [32] After the Senate approved negotiations with Bocchus, it delegated the talks to Marius, who appointed Sulla as envoy plenipotentiary. Church and W. J. Brodribb. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the Senate. He was to return the kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia to Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, respectively. Sulla, in full Lucius Cornelius Sulla or later Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, (born 138 bcedied 79 bce, Puteoli [Pozzuoli, near Naples, Italy]), victor in the first full-scale civil war in Roman history (88-82 bce) and subsequently dictator (82-79), who carried out notable constitutional reforms in an attempt to strengthen the Roman Republic during the last century of its existence. . [113], Sulla crossed the Adriatic for Brundisium in spring of 83BC with five legions of Mithridatic veterans, capturing Brundisium without a fight. Se l'azienda ha pi di 200 dipendenti, deve essere presente anche il rappresentante sindacale aziendale (RSA). [49] At this meeting, Sulla was told by a Chaldean seer that he would die at the height of his fame and fortune. They are often based on primary sources. He became a tribune of the plebeians in 52 BC where he gained a reputation for being a strong supporter of the populares. He was saved through the efforts of his relatives, many of whom were Sulla's supporters, but Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar's life, because of the young man's notorious ambition. This also removed the need for the censor to draw up a list of senators, since more than enough former magistrates were always available to fill the Senate. The hundreds of thousands of men who enlisted . Secondary Sources: Primary sources are not complete; you will find the following helpful: Boardman, John, ed. Pompey ambushed eight legions sent to relieve Praeneste but an uprising from the Samnites and the Lucanians forced Sulla to deploy south as they moved also to relieve Praeneste or join with Carbo in the north. When the campaign in Italy started, two theatres emerged, with Sulla facing the younger Marius in the south and Metellus Pius facing Carbo in the north. Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador. Primary sources enable students to explore the documentary evidence of a nation's history - the roots of its government, value systems and role on the world stage. [141][140][142][143][144] Accounts were also written that he had an infestation of worms, caused by the ulcers, which led to his death. [54] Various proposals to give the allies Roman citizenship over the decades had failed for various reasons, just as the allies also "became progressively more aware of the need to cease to be subjects and to share in the exercise of imperial power" by acquiring that citizenship. Studying the past supports good citizenship, which is requisite for a fair and effective democracy. onwards. Sulla was closely associated with Venus,[9] adopting the title Epaphroditos meaning favored of Aphrodite/Venus.[10]. Sulla, undeterred, stood again for the praetorship the next year, promising he would pay for good shows; duly elected as praetor in 97BC, he was assigned by lot to the urban praetorship. In 46 BC Julius Caesar appointed him governor of the province of Africa. However, despite this portrayal, particularly from Plutarch's accounts, it is difficult to determine just how culpable Marius and Sulla were for the chaos that engulfed the Roman Republic There, Sulla attacked him in an indecisive battle. [57], The same year, Bocchus paid for the erection of a statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. However, his candidature was dealt a blow when he was brought up on charges of extorting Ariobarzanes. Sulla was born in a very turbulent era of Rome's history, which has often been described as the beginning of the fall of the Roman Republic.The political climate was marked by civil discord and rampant political violence where voting in the Assembly was . Primary sources are first-hand accounts of events. Primary Sources Sallust. [36] Amid a reorganisation of political alliances, the traditionalists in the Senate raised up Sulla a patrician, even if a poor one, as a counterweight against the newcomer Marius. He was devoted to pleasure but more devoted to glory. Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. To do so would mean total humiliation at the hands of his opponents, the end of his political career, and perhaps even further danger to his life. His primary duty was the defeat of Mithridates and the re-establishment of Roman power in the east. The young Gaius Julius Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, became one of Sulla's targets, and fled the city. 106/10 The quaestor L.Sulla arrives at Marius' camp with reinforcements from Source: Ammianus Marcellinus, History, XIV.16: "The Luxury of the Rich in Rome," c. 400 A.D. From this distance, Sulla remained out of the day-to-day political activities in Rome, intervening only a few times when his policies were involved (e.g. Primary sources in history are often created by people who witnessed, participated in, or were otherwise close to a particular event. They are different from secondary sources, accounts that retell, analyze, or interpret events, usually at a distance of time or place." Library of Congress Teacher's Page. In a dispute over the command of the war against Mithridates, initially awarded to Sulla by the Senate, but withdrawn as a result of Marius' intrigues, Sulla marched on Rome in an unprecedented act and defeated Marian forces in battle. In a typical year, the Graduate Acting Department will personally audition more than 800 students in order to select an ensemble of 16 actors. [117] Sulla attempted to open negotiations with Norbanus, who was at Capua, but Norbanus refused to treat and withdrew to Praeneste as Sulla advanced. Secondary sources include: Essays analyzing novels, works of art, and other original creations. [107], In the aftermath of the battle, Sulla was approached by Archelaus for terms. To further solidify the prestige and authority of the Senate, Sulla transferred the control of the courts from the equites, who had held control since the Gracchi reforms, to the senators. Primary sources are first-hand evidence related to the time or event you are investigating.This includes accounts by participants or observers and a wide range of written, physical, audio or visual materials created at the time or later by someone with direct experience.. Click the title for location and availability information. Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust) was born Amiternum in the country of the Sabines in 86 BC. The interest rates were also to be agreed between both parties at the time that the loan was made, and should stand for the whole term of the debt, without further increase. Sulla's descendants continued to be prominent in Roman politics into the imperial period. 107/14 The dissolute lifestyle of L.Sulla, as a young man. It was not until he was in his very late forties and almost past the age . Secondary sources are a step removed from primary sources. [88] Political violence in Rome continued even in Sulla's absence. Sulla then left for Capua before joining an army near Nola in southern Italy.[74]. Sulla then duly besieged the city. [21] Regardless, by the standards of the Roman political class, Sulla was a very poor man. Deciding whether a source is primary or secondary is sometimes confusing. Sulla also wanted to reduce the risk that a future general might attempt to seize power, as he himself had done. Works of art, in general, are considered primary sources. By. The Senate immediately sent an embassy demanding an explanation for his seeming march on the fatherland, to which Sulla responded boldly, saying that he was freeing it from tyrants. Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or . Upon his arrival, Sulla had his quaestor Lucullus order Sura, who had vitally delayed Mithridates' advances into Greece, to retreat back into Macedonia. What Is a Primary Source? Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to the truth of what actually happened during an historical event or time period. Beginning Research Activities Student activities designed to help . Marius, an Italian by birth rather than a pure Roman, was a relative newcomer to the Roman elite, and he was considered an outsider by the Senate fathers. [136] Sulla's reforms both looked to the past (often repassing former laws) and regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of maiestas (treason) laws and in his reform of the Senate. [61] But after Cato's death in battle with the Marsi,[62] Sulla was prorogued pro consule and placed in supreme command of the southern theatre. [129], Sulla had his stepdaughter Aemilia (daughter of princeps senatus Marcus Aemilius Scaurus) married to Pompey, although she shortly died in childbirth. Eyeglasses from Colonial America would be a primary source about Early American History. This distinction is important because it will affect how you understand these sources. Also, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, Nero's cousin, was exiled as a potential rival in 58. In this first video of a 2-part tutorial, we will discuss primary sources. In the decades before Sulla had become dictator, Roman politics became increasingly violent. To make primary texts readily available for classroom use, they selected important . [76] The troops were willing to follow Sulla to Rome; his officers, however, realised Sulla's plans and deserted him (except his quaestor and kinsman, almost certainly Lucius Licinius Lucullus). Examples of tertiary sources include encyclopedias and dictionaries, chronologies, almanacs, directories, indexes, and bibliographies. Historians to Sulla's dictatorship such as Livy (From the Founding of the City) and Appian (Roman History, especially the section regarding the Civil Wars) include additional details of Marius' life during the Social War while other sources list brief statements of note. [108] Adding to his challenges was Lucullus' fleet, reinforced by Rhodian allies.
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